Impact of Overloading and Overdimensioned Loads on Vehicle Aerodynamics and Operating Costs Using CFD Simulation and HDM-4 Model
Pengaruh Beban dan Dimensi Muatan Berlebih Terhadap Aerodinamika dan Biaya Operasi Kendaraan Berbasis Simulasi CFD dan Model HDM-4
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.30595/jrst.v10i1.30021Keywords:
overdimension, aerodynamic resistance, frontal area, operating costsAbstract
Overdimension and overloading (ODOL) practices in coal transport trucks in Indonesia contribute to increased Vehicle Operating Costs (VOC), energy inefficiency, and accelerated road infrastructure deterioration. Although the HDM-4 model has been widely applied for operational cost estimation, most previous studies rely on default aerodynamic parameters that do not adequately represent geometric changes caused by excessive loading. This study aims to develop a more accurate VOC estimation by integrating Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations with calibration of the HDM-4 Level II model under progressive overload conditions. The analysis was conducted on open-body trucks with a 1.2 axle configuration across five loading scenarios ranging from 8 to 12 tonnes. Actual aerodynamic parameters, including frontal area (AF) and drag coefficient (Cd), were obtained through CFD simulations and incorporated into the HDM-4 model to estimate fuel, lubricant, and tyre costs. The results indicate that increasing the payload from 8 to 12 tonnes enlarges the frontal area from 4.08 m² to 4.69 m² and raises the drag coefficient from 0.73 to 0.87, thereby increasing aerodynamic resistance and engine power demand. Economically, this condition leads to a 13.06% increase in fuel costs and a 3.55% increase in tyre costs compared with the standard load condition. These findings demonstrate that integrating actual aerodynamic parameters into the HDM-4 framework produces VOC estimates that are more sensitive to variations in loading configuration. The proposed approach provides methodological contributions to evaluating the economic impacts of ODOL practices and supports the strengthening of overload control policies.
ABSTRAK (Bahasa Indonesia)
Praktik Overdimension dan Overloading (ODOL) pada truk angkutan batubara di Indonesia berkontribusi terhadap peningkatan Biaya Operasi Kendaraan (BOK), pemborosan energi, dan percepatan kerusakan infrastruktur jalan. Meskipun model HDM-4 telah banyak digunakan untuk estimasi biaya operasional, sebagian besar studi masih mengandalkan parameter aerodinamika default yang belum merepresentasikan perubahan geometri akibat muatan berlebih. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengembangkan estimasi BOK yang lebih akurat melalui integrasi simulasi Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) dengan kalibrasi model HDM-4 Level II pada kondisi overload progresif. Analisis dilakukan pada truk bak terbuka konfigurasi sumbu 1.2 dengan lima skenario muatan antara 8 hingga 12 ton. Parameter aerodinamika aktual berupa luas area frontal (AF) dan koefisien hambatan (Cd) diperoleh melalui simulasi CFD dan digunakan sebagai input kalibrasi dalam model HDM-4 untuk menghitung biaya bahan bakar, pelumas, dan ban. Hasil menunjukkan bahwa peningkatan muatan dari 8 menjadi 12 ton meningkatkan AF dari 4,08 m² menjadi 4,69 m² dan menaikkan Cd dari 0,73 menjadi 0,87, yang memperbesar hambatan aerodinamis dan kebutuhan daya mesin. Secara ekonomi, kondisi tersebut meningkatkan biaya bahan bakar sebesar 13,06% dan biaya ban sebesar 3,55% dibandingkan muatan standar. Temuan ini menunjukkan bahwa integrasi parameter aerodinamika aktual ke dalam HDM-4 menghasilkan estimasi BOK yang lebih sensitif terhadap perubahan konfigurasi muatan. Pendekatan ini memberikan kontribusi metodologis dalam evaluasi dampak ekonomi praktik ODOL serta mendukung penguatan kebijakan pengendalian muatan berlebih.
References
Arifaini, I. A., & Soeskandi, H. (2022). Analisis Hukum Kebijakan Kelebihan Dimensi dan Kelebihan Muatan Terhadap Demonstran Gerakan sopir Jawa Timur. Bureaucracy Journal : Indonesia Journal of Law and Social-Political Governance, 2(3), 985–1002. https://doi.org/10.53363/bureau.v2i3.77
Bayındırlı, C., Akansu, Y. E., & Salman, M. S. (2016). The Determination Of Aerodynamic Drag Coefficient Of Truck and Trailer Model By Wind Tunnel Tests. International Journal of Automotive Engineering and Technologies, 5(2), 53. https://doi.org/10.18245/ijaet.11754
Bennett, C. R., & Paterson, W. D. O. (2000). A Guide to Calibration and Adaptation. Highway Development and Management Series (1st ed., Vol. 5). The World Road Association (PIARC).
Brasukra, S., & Hergesel, A. (2008). Biaya transportasi barang angkutan, regulasi, dan pungutan jalan di Indonesia. Asia Foundation. https://supplychainindonesia.com/wp-content/files/Biaya_Transportasi_Barang_Asia_Foundation_tanpa_peta_LAIN_LAIN.pdf
Budiharjo, A., Andika, T., Fitriani, N., Rukman, R., & Turasno, B. (2022). Operational Data Analytics of Over Dimensional and Overloaded Truck in Indonesia. RSF Conference Series: Engineering and Technology, 2(2), 88–98. https://doi.org/10.31098/cset.v2i2.562
Carson, J. L. (2011). Directory of Significant Truck Size and Weight Research, NCHRP 20-07 Task 303. https://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/docs/NCHRP20-07(303)_FR.pdf
Chan, Y. C. (2008). Truck Overloading Study in Developing Countries and Strategies to Minimize its Impact [Queensland University of Technology]. In Engineering, Environmental Science. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/28561/1/Ying_Chan_Thesis.pdf
Chen, Y., Wang, K., Zhang, Y., Luo, R., Yu, S., Shi, Q., & Hu, W. (2020). Investigating factors affecting road freight overloading through the integrated use of BLR and CART: A case study in China. Transport, 35(3), 236–246. https://doi.org/10.3846/transport.2020.12635
Chowdhury, H., Juwono, R., Zaid, M., Islam, R., Loganathan, B., & Alam, F. (2019). An experimental study on of the effect of various deflectors used for light trucks in Indian subcontinent. Energy Procedia, 160, 34–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2019.02.115
de Saxe, C. C., van Eeden, J., Kemp, L., Steenkamp, A., & Cowper, J. (2023). High-capacity coal trucks to reduce costs and emissions at South Africa’s power utility. Research in Transportation Business and Management, 48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rtbm.2022.100898
Delgado, O., Rodríguez, F., & Muncrief, R. (2017). Fuel Efficiency Technology in European Heavy-Duty Vehicles: Baseline and Potential for the 2020-2030 Time Frame. https://theicct.org
Direktorat Perhubungan Darat. (2003). Surat Edaran Dirjen Hubdat No. AJ.307/2/7/DRJD/2003, tentang Ketentuan Mengenai Angkutan Barang Curah.
Harun, S. S., Jinca, M. Y., & Saleng, A. (2024). Vehicle Traffic with Over Dimensions and Over Loads in Improving Transportation Safety. Civil Engineering and Architecture, 12(6), 3933–3943. https://doi.org/10.13189/cea.2024.120613
Hassan, R. S. M., Islam, T., Ali, M., & Islam, Q. M. (2014). Numerical study on aerodynamic drag reduction of racing cars. Procedia Engineering, 90, 308–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2014.11.854
Heisler, H. (2002). Advanced Vehicle Technology (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann.
Jacob, B., & Feypell-de La Beaumelle, V. (2010). Improving truck safety: Potential of weigh-in-motion technology. IATSS Research, 34(1), 9–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iatssr.2010.06.003
Jiao, X., & Bienvenu, M. (2015). Field Measurement and Calibration of HDM-4 Fuel Consumption Model on Interstate Highway in Florida. International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology ·, 4(1), 29–46. https://doi.org/10.1260/2046-0430.4.1.29
Jihanny, J., Subagio, B. S., & Hariyadi, E. S. (2018). The analysis of overloaded trucks in indonesia based on weigh in motion data (east of sumatera national road case study). MATEC Web Conferences. https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201814702006
Kadarsa, E., Hanafiah, Adhitya, B. B., Pataras, M., & Azari, A. (2019). Comparison Analysis Operastional Cost of Vehicle (VOC) between Kayu Agung-Palembang-Betung Toll Road Plan with Existing Road. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 396(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/396/1/012034
Karim, M. R., Abdullah, A. S., Yamanaka, H., Abdullah, A. S., & Ramli, R. (2013). Degree of Vehicle Overloading and its Implication on Road Safety in Developing Countries. Civil and Environmental Research, 3(12), 20–32. https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/CER/article/view/8636/8832
Ko, K. H., Moon, B. K., Lee, T. W., Lee, W. H., Yoo, I. Y., Lee, S. Y., Han, D. S., & Jeong, S. H. (2016). An Economic Calibration Method for Fuel Consumption Model in HDM4. Wireless Personal Communications, 89(3), 959–975. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11277-016-3353-2
Li, J., Zhou, J., & Hu, Z. (2008, October 8). Safety Analysis of Overloaded Truck for Transportation. Logistics: The Emerging Frontiers of Transportation and Development in China: Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference of Chinese Logistics and Transportation Professionals. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.1061/40996(330)595
Liputantanjab. (2021, November 11). Wadirlantas Polda Jambi: Untuk Sopir Truk Batubara Harus Dilengkapi Surat-surat dan Muatan Jangan Melebihi Tonase. Liputantanjab.Com. https://liputantanjab.com/wadir-lantas-polda-jambi-untuk-sopir-truk-batubara-harus-lengkapi-surat-surat-dan-muatan-jangan-melebihi-tonase/
Lubis, S., Siregar, C. A., & Abdilah, F. (2020). Simulation of Air Flow Loss in Triangle Pipe Construction. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 821(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/821/1/012047
Mirmahdi, E., Karimi, M. H., Khoubrou, A., & Sajed, S. A. (2021). The Effect of Aerodynamic Forces on Automotive Design and Reducing Fuel Consumption. International Journal of Robotics and Automation, 7(1), 36–41. https://doi.org/10.37628/IJRA
Nariendra, P. W., & Juanita, J. (2023). Implementasi Kebijakan Operasional Truk Overloading Di Provinsi Jambi. 24(1), 59–64. https://doi.org/10.30595/techno.v24i1.17213
Nariendra, P. W., & Lestiani, M. E. (2025). Calibration of HDM-4 Model for Fuel Consumption in Heavy-Duty Trucks: Integration of Telematics, Engine Speed, and Aerodynamics. Automotive Experiences, 8(1), 109–121. https://doi.org/10.31603/ae.12862
Nariendra, P. W., Santosa, W., & Sutandi, A. C. (2026). Modeling Fuel Consumption of Heavy-duty Trucks Using Telematics Data. Periodica Polytechnica Transportation Engineering, 54, 41–48. https://doi.org/10.3311/pptr.38337
NZ Transport Agency. (2017). Overdimension Vehicles and Loads. www.nzta.govt.nz/traffic/current-conditions/index.html.
Odoki, J. B., & Kerali, H. G. R. (2006). Analytical Framework and Model Descriptions. Highway Development and Management Series (2nd ed., Vol. 4). World Road Association PIARC.
Pal, S., Kabir, S. M. H., & Talukder, M. M. M. (2015). Aerodynamic Analysis Of A Concept Car Model. International Conference on Mechanical Engineering and Renewable Energy 2015.
Pemerintah Provinsi Jambi. (2021). Surat Edaran Gubernur Jambi Nomor 1448/SE/DISHUB-3.1/XII/2021 tentang penggunaan jalan publik untuk angkutan Batubara antar Kabupaten/Kota dalam Provinsi Jambi. In Pemerintah Provinsi Jambi (1448/SE/DISHUB-3.1/XII/2021).
Perrotta, F., Parry, T., Neves, L. C., Buckland, T., Benbow, E., & Mesgarpour, M. (2019). Verification of the HDM-4 fuel consumption model using a Big data approach: A UK case study. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 67, 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2018.11.001
Posada-Henao, J. J., Sarmiento-Ordosgoitia, I., & Correa-Espinal, A. A. (2023). Effects of Road Slope and Vehicle Weight on Truck Fuel Consumption. Sustainability (Switzerland), 15(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010724
Santoso, B. (2022, January 17). Dua Kecelakaan Maut Di Jalur Lintas Sumatera Jambi, Enam Orang Tewas. Suara.Com. https://www.suara.com/news/2022/01/17/055722/dua-kecelakaan-maut-di-jalur-lintas-sumatera-jambi-enam-orang-tewas
Setiawan, D., & Tjahjono, T. (2020). Overloading Vehicle Impact Analysis on the Performance of Toll Road Traffic. International Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering Research, 8(8), 4828–4833. https://doi.org/10.30534/ijeter/2020/121882020
Shah, R., Sharma, Y., Mathew, B., Kateshiya, V., Parmar, J., & Prof, A. (2016). Review Paper on Overloading Effect. International Journal of Advanced Scientific Research and Management, 1(4), 131–134. https://ijasrm.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/IJASRM_V1S4_039_131_134.pdf
Simanjuntak, G. I., Pramusetyo, A., Riyanto, B., & Supriyono. (2014). Analisis Pengaruh Muatan Lebih (Overloading) Terhadap Kinerja Jalan Dan Umur Rencana Perkerasan Lentur (Studi Kasus Ruas Jalan Raya Pringsurat, Ambarawa-Magelang). Jurnal Karya Teknik Sipil, 3(3), 539–551. https://ejournal3.undip.ac.id/index.php/jkts/article/view/5772
Subhan, A. (2015). Jejaring Kebijakan Pengangkutan Batubara di Provinsi Jambi ditinjau dari Perspektif Good Governance. Jurnal Ilmu Pemerintahan, 1(1), 86–104. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.24198/cosmogov.v1i1.11801
Suhada, I. D., Triono, U., Priyono, & R, R. M. (2015). Penyelidikan Batubara Daerah Batusawar dan Sekitarnya, Kabupaten Tebo dan Batanghari, Provinsi Jambi. https://geologi.esdm.go.id/perpustakaan/?p=show_detail&id=2530&keywords=
Suwandi. (2022, January 22). Hilang Kendali, Truk Tronton Muatan Batubara Hantam Mobil Pikap di Jambi, 11 Penumpang Luka. Kompas.Com. https://regional.kompas.com/read/2022/01/22/082713378/hilang-kendali-truk-tronton-muatan-batubara-hantam-mobil-pikap-di-jambi-11
Tillman, D. A., Duong, D. N. B., & Harding, N. S. (2012). Solid Fuel Blending (Vol. 7). Butterworth-Heinemann. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2009-0-30636-4
Wilches, F. J., Reyes, L. J. C., & Ávila, R. H. (2019). Effect of Type of Carried Load on Damage Factors Caused by Overloaded Trucks in a Road Section in Northern Colombia. International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET), 10(12), 145–154. http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/[email protected]://iaeme.comhttp://iaeme.com
Yang, Z., Minjares, R., Kusumaningkatma, M., Sehlleier, F., Herliana, L., Priatama, Y., Yani, A., Wahyudi, A., Simbolon, E., Ayu, D., & Indah, D. (2021). Truck Fleet Modernization in Indonesia Mitigation Action Outline. https://changing-transport.org/publications/truck-fleet-modernization-in-indonesia/
Zaabar, I., & Chatti, K. (2010). Calibration of HDM-4 Models for Estimating the Effect of Pavement Roughness on Fuel Consumption for U.S. Conditions. Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2155, 105–116. https://doi.org/10.3141/2155-12
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Pradhana Wahyu Nariendra, Juanita

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access)
JRST (Jurnal Riset Sains dan Teknologi) is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

