Abstract

The rapid development of artificial intelligence (AI) technology has accelerated the emergence of deepfake media capable of manipulating audio, video, and images with highly realistic results. Although deepfake technology offers creative and economic benefits, its misuse has created serious legal, ethical, and social challenges, including digital fraud, political disinformation, identity theft, and non-consensual pornography. Indonesia currently lacks a comprehensive legal framework specifically regulating deepfake and generative AI technologies, resulting in regulatory fragmentation and weak victim protection. This study aims to analyze comparative regulatory models regarding deepfake crimes in the European Union, the United States, and the People’s Republic of China, as well as to examine the urgency of legal reform in Indonesia. This research employs normative legal research using statutory, conceptual, and comparative approaches. The findings demonstrate that the European Union adopts a risk-based and transparency-oriented model through the Artificial Intelligence Act, the United States applies fragmented sectoral regulations prioritizing freedom of expression, while China emphasizes state-centered digital governance and platform liability. Meanwhile, Indonesia still experiences legal uncertainty, limited digital forensic capacity, and the absence of platform accountability mechanisms. This study argues that Indonesia urgently requires a comprehensive AI and deepfake regulatory framework integrating mandatory labeling obligations, victim-oriented protection, AI forensic standards, and platform responsibility mechanisms to ensure digital security, legal certainty, and the protection of human rights in cyberspace.

There is no Figure or data content available for this article

References

• Ajder, Henry, Giorgio Patrini, Francesco Cavalli, and Laurence Cullen. The State of Deepfakes: Landscape, Threats, and Impact. (Amsterdam: Deeptrace Labs, 2020). https://regmedia.co.uk/2019/10/08/deepfake_report.pdf.
• Arifin, Fernando, and Handayani. “Legal Implications of The Second Amendment to The Electronic Information and Transactions Law.” Jurnal Litigasi 26, no. 1 (2025). https://doi.org/10.23969/litigasi.v26i1.21555.
• Asshiddiqie, Jimly. Konstitusi dan Konstitusionalisme Indonesia. (Jakarta : Sinar Grafika, 2021).
• Bień-Węgłowska, I. “Deepfakes in the Light of the Artificial Intelligence Act.” Prawo i Wiez 58(5), (2025): 151–169. https://doi.org/10.36128/4dr67e80.
• Carboni, Kevin. “Il Processo per i Deepfake Porno con il Volto di Giorgia Meloni.” Wired Italia, March 21, 2024. https://www.wired.it/article/giorgia-meloni-deepfake-porno-processo/.
• Chesney, Bobby, and Danielle Citron. “Deepfakes and the New Disinformation War.” Foreign Affairs, 98 (1) (2019): 147–155. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/world/2018-12-11/deepfakes-and-new-disinformation-war.
• Citron, Danielle Keats, and Robert Chesney. “Deep Fakes: A Looming Challenge for Privacy, Democracy, and National Security.” California Law Review 107, no. 6 (2019): 1753–1820. https://doi.org/10.15779/Z38RV0D15J.
• ________. “Sexual Privacy.” Yale Law Journal 128, no. 7 (2019): 1870–1960. https://www.yalelawjournal.org/article/sexual-privacy.
• Creemers, Rogier. “China’s Emerging Data Protection Framework.” Journal of Cyber Policy 7, no. 1 (2022): 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/23738871.2021.2008770.
• Cyberspace Administration of China. Provisions on the Administration of Deep Synthesis Internet Information Services. 2023. http://www.cac.gov.cn/2022-12/11/c_1672221949318230.htm.
• de Ruiter, Adrienne. “The Distinct Wrong of Deepfakes.” Philosophy & Technology 34, no. 4 (2021): 1311–1332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-021-00459-2 .
• Delfino, Rebecca. “Pornographic Deepfakes: The Case for Federal Criminalization.” Fordham Law Review 88, no. 3 (2019): 887–938. https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/flr/vol88/iss3/2.
• DetikInet. “Penyalahgunaan AI Meresahkan, Kasus Penipuan Deepfake Capai Rp700 M.” Detik.com, October 24, 2025. https://inet.detik.com/law-and-policy/d-8177140/penyalahgunaan-ai-meresahkan-kasus-penipuan-deepfake-capai-rp-700-m .
• Ebers, Martin. “Liability for AI and EU Consumer Law.” Journal of European Consumer and Market Law 10, no. 5 (2021): 204–209. https://doi.org/10.21552/eur/2021/5/5.
• Edwards, Lilian. “Regulating AI in Europe: Four Problems and Four Solutions.” SSRN Electronic Journal (2024). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5026691.
• European Parliament and Council. Digital Services Act. Regulation (EU) 2022/2065. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2022/2065/oj.
• _______. General Data Protection Regulation. Regulation (EU) 2016/679. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2016/679/oj.
• _______. Artificial Intelligence Act. Regulation (EU) 2024/1689. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1689/oj.
• Fernandez, A. “‘Deep Fakes’: Disentangling Terms in the Proposed EU Artificial Intelligence Act.” UFITA – Archiv für Medienrecht und Medienwissenschaft, no. 2 (2021): 392–433. https://doi.org/10.5771/2568-9185-2021-2-392.
• Finck, Michèle. “Chapter IV: Transparency Obligations for Providers and Deployers of Certain AI Systems.” In The EU Artificial Intelligence Act: A Commentary, 464–481. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2026). https://doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198925705.003.0005.
• Franks, Mary Anne. “Deepfakes and the Law.” Fordham Law Review 89, no. 5 (2021): 1965–1978. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3852255.
• Gils, T. “A Detailed Analysis of Article 50 of the EU’s Artificial Intelligence Act.” In The EU Artificial Intelligence (AI) Act, edited by C. N. Pehlivan, N. Forgó, and P. Valcke, 776–823. Kluwer Law International, 2025. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4865427.
• Hao-Ping Lee, et al. “Deepfakes, Phrenology, Surveillance, and More! A Taxonomy of AI Privacy Risks.” arXiv (2023): 8–12. https://arxiv.org/abs/2310.0879.
• Harsya, Rabith Madah Khulaili. “Tinjauan Yuridis terhadap Tanggung Jawab Platform Digital atas Konten Ilegal Menurut Hukum Indonesia.” Sanskara Hukum dan HAM 4, no. 1 (2025): 276–286. https://doi.org/10.58812/shh.v4i01.609 .
• Hoffman, Samantha. “Engineering Global Consent: The Chinese Communist Party’s Data-Driven Power Expansion.” Australian Strategic Policy Institute (2019): 10–15. https://www.aspi.org.au/report/engineering-global-consent.
• Ibrahim, Johnny. Teori dan Metodologi Penelitian Hukum Normatif. (Malang: Bayumedia, 2019).
• Jiang, Min, and Ran Wei. “Deepfake Governance in China: Law, Policy, and Platform Responsibility.” Internet Policy Review 12, no. 2 (2023): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.14763/2023.2.1689.
• Kapczynski, Amy. “The First Amendment and the Regulation of Disinformation.” Yale Law Journal Forum 131 (2021): 227–240. https://www.yalelawjournal.org/forum/the-first-amendment-and-the-regulation-of-disinformation.
• Keller, Daphne. “Regulating Deepfakes after Generative AI.” Journal of Free Speech Law 3, no. 2 (2023): 260–271. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4389686.
• Kompas.com. “100 Orang Jadi Korban Penipuan Pakai Video Deepfake Prabowo, Kerugian Capai Rp65 Juta.” Kompas.com, February 7, 2025. https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2025/02/07/18360001/100-orang-jadi-korban-penipuan-pakai-video-deepfake-prabowo-kerugian-capai.
• _________. “Interpol Polri Sebut Banyak WNI yang Kerja di Perusahaan Judi Online hingga Scamming di Kamboja.” Kompas.com, April 14, 2025. https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2025/04/14/12202301/interpol-polri-sebut-banyak-wni-yang-kerja-di-perusahaan-judi-online-hingga.
• Lee, Hao-Ping, et al. “Deepfakes, Phrenology, Surveillance, and More! A Taxonomy of AI Privacy Risks.” arXiv (2023): 8–12. https://arxiv.org/abs/2310.07879.
• Makarim, Edmon. Tanggung Jawab Hukum Penyelenggara Sistem Elektronik. (Jakarta: Rajawali Pers, 2020).
• Marzuki, Peter Mahmud. Penelitian Hukum. (Jakarta: Kencana, 2021)
• Maskun. “Kejahatan Siber (Cyber Crime) dalam Perspektif Hukum Indonesia.” Jurnal Media Hukum 25, no. 1 (2018): 58–72. https://doi.org/10.18196/jmh.2018.0108.
• Nasution, Suteki A. V. A., and A. D. Lumbanraja. “Addressing Deepfake Pornography and the Right to be Forgotten in Indonesia: Legal Challenges in the Era of AI-Driven Sexual Abuse.” International Journal for the Semiotics of Law 38, no. 7 (2025): 5–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11196-025-10265-0.
• Nguyen, Thanh Thi, et al. “Deep Learning for Deepfakes Creation and Detection: A Survey.” Computer Vision and Image Understanding 223 (2022): 103525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cviu.2022.103525.
• Oktafiana, Hary, and Muhammad Miftah Nurhidayatulloh. “Tanggung Jawab Hukum Platform Digital dalam Mengendalikan Penyebaran Konten Ilegal di Internet.” Jurnal Pendidikan Tambusai 10, no. 1 (2026): 6776–6781. https://doi.org/10.31004/jptam.v10i1.37260.
• Pawelec, Maria. “Deepfakes and Democracy (Theory): How Synthetic Audio-Visual Media for Disinformation and Hate Speech Threaten Core Democratic Functions.” Digital Society 1, no. 19 (2022): 4–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44206-022-00010-6.
• Prasetya, M. D., et al. “Subordinate Justice to Forensic Scientists: Indonesia’s Authority and Regulation Gap.” Media Iuris 9, no. 1 (2026): 21–29. https://doi.org/10.20473/mi.v9i1.77587.
• Rochaeti, Nur. “Kebijakan Hukum Pidana dalam Penanggulangan Cyber Crime di Indonesia.” Masalah-Masalah Hukum 49, no. 2 (2020): 136–148. https://doi.org/10.14710/mmh.49.2.2020.136-148.
• Rosadi, Sinta Dewi, and Rika Ratna Permata. “Perlindungan Data Pribadi dalam Era Ekonomi Digital di Indonesia.” Veritas et Justitia 8, no. 1 (2022): 91–112. https://doi.org/10.25123/vej.v8i1.5136.
• Soekanto, Soerjono, and Sri Mamudji. Penelitian Hukum Normatif. (Jakarta: Rajawali Pers, 2020).
• Solove, Daniel J. “Deepfakes, Privacy, and the First Amendment.” Boston University Law Review 103, no. 2 (2023): 499–528. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4303959.
• Syamsudin, M. “Perlindungan Hukum terhadap Korban Kejahatan Siber di Indonesia.” Jurnal Hukum IUS QUIA IUSTUM 28, no. 1 (2021): 1–20. https://doi.org/10.20885/iustum.vol28.iss1.art1.
• van der Sloot, Bart, and Yvette Wagensveld. “Deepfakes: Regulatory Challenges for the Synthetic Society.” Computer Law & Security Review 46 (2022): 9–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2022.105716.
• Veale, Michael, and Frederik Zuiderveen Borgesius. “Demystifying the Draft EU Artificial Intelligence Act.” Computer Law Review International 22, no. 4 (2021): 97–112. https://doi.org/10.9785/cri-2021-220402.
• Volokh, Eugene. “Freedom of Speech and Deepfake Regulation.” Journal of Free Speech Law 1, no. 2 (2021): 221–248. https://www.journaloffreespeechlaw.org/volokh.pdf.
• Wachter, Sandra, Brent Mittelstadt, and Luciano Floridi. “Transparent, Explainable, and Accountable AI for Robotics.” Science Robotics 2, no. 6 (2017): 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1126/scirobotics.aan6080.
• Wiratraman, R. Herlambang Perdana. “Digital Constitutionalism and Freedom of Expression in Indonesia.” Hasanuddin Law Review 8, no. 2 (2022): 145–160. https://doi.org/10.20956/halrev.v8i2.3600.
• Wirianingsih. “Analisis Yuridis Tanggung Jawab Platform Media Sosial terhadap Konten Berbahaya bagi Anak di Indonesia.” Journal Evidence of Law 5, no. 1 (2026). https://doi.org/10.59066/jel.v5i1.2125.
• Yeung, Karen. “A Study of the Implications of Advanced Digital Technologies for the Concept of Responsibility within a Human Rights Framework.” Human Rights Law Review 19, no. 2 (2019): 257–283. https://doi.org/10.1093/hrlr/ngz007.
• Zhang, Lyu. “Regulating Deepfakes in China: A Subject-Based Approach.” Asian Journal of Law and Society 8, no. 2 (2021): 361–367. https://doi.org/10.1017/als.2021.23.

How to Cite This

Article Metrics

Download Statistics

Other Statistics

Copyright and Permissions

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Authors who publish with Kosmik Hukum agree to the following terms:

1. Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
2. Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
3. Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work.

Data Availability